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268 Part III . Choosing and Installing a Linux Distribution boot=/dev/hda map=/boot/map install=/boot/boot.b message=/boot/message linear image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.6.13-1.1526_FC4-i386 label=linux initrd=/boot/initrd-2.6.13-1.1526_FC4-i386.img read-only root=/dev/hda6 append= root=LABEL=/ other=/dev/hda1 optional label=dos With prompt on, the boot prompt appears when the system is booted without requiring that any keys are pressed. The timeout value, in this case 50 tenths of a second (5 seconds), defines how long to wait for keyboard input before booting the default boot image. The boot line indicates that the bootable partition is on the hard disk represented by /dev/hda (the first IDE hard disk). The map line indicates the location of the map file (/boot/map, by default). The map file contains the name and locations of bootable kernel images. The install line indicates that the /boot/boot.b file is used as the new boot sector. The message line tells LILO to display the contents of the /boot/message file when booting (that contains the graphical Fedora boot screen that appears). The linear line causes linear sector addresses to be generated (instead of sector/head/ cylinder addresses). In the sample file, there are two bootable partitions. The first (image=/boot/ vmlinuz-2.6.13-1.1526_FC4-i386) shows an image labeled linux. The root file system (/) for that image is on partition /dev/hda6. Read-only indicates that the file system is first mounted read-only, although it is probably mounted as read/write after a file system check. The inidrd line indicates the location of the initial RAM disk image used to start the system. The second bootable partition, which is indicated by the word other in this example, is on the /dev/hda1 partition. Because it is a Windows XP system, it is labeled a DOS file system. The table line indicates the device that contains the partition. Other bootable images are listed in this file, and you can add another boot image yourself (like one you create from reconfiguring your kernel as discussed in the next section) by installing the new image and changing lilo.conf.
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Chapter 7 . Installing Linux 267 If LILO is being used on your computer, it is installed in either the master boot record or the first sector of the root partition. The master boot record is read directly by the computer s BIOS. In general, if LILO is the only loader on your computer, install it in the master boot record. If there is another boot loader already in the master boot record, put LILO in the root partition. Using LILO When your computer boots with the Fedora version of LILO installed in the master boot record, a graphical Fedora screen appears, displaying the bootable partitions on the computer. Use the up and down arrow keys on your keyboard to select the one you want and press Enter. Otherwise, the default partition that you set at installation will boot after a few seconds. If you want to add any special options when you boot, press Ctrl+X. You will see a text-based boot prompt that appears as follows: boot: LILO pauses for a few seconds and then automatically boots the first image from the default bootable partition. To see the bootable partitions again, quickly press Tab. You may see something similar to the following: LILO boot: linux linux-up dos boot: This example shows that three bootable partitions are on your computer, called linux, linux-up, and dos. The first two refer to two different boot images that can boot the Linux partition. The third refers to a bootable DOS partition (presumably containing a Windows operating system). The first bootable partition is loaded if you don t type anything after a few seconds. Or you can use the name of the other partition to have that boot instead. If you have multiple boot images, press Shift, and LILO asks you which image you want to boot. Available boot images and other options are defined in the /etc/lilo.conf file. Setting Up the /etc/lilo.conf File The /etc/lilo.conf file is where LILO gets the information it needs to find and start bootable partitions and images. By adding options to the /etc/lilo.conf file, you can change the behavior of the boot process. The following is an example of some of the contents of the /etc/lilo.conf file: prompt timeout=50 default=linux
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266 Part III . Choosing and Installing a Linux Distribution Microsoft operating systems require that you use the chainloader to boot them from GRUB because GRUB doesn t offer native support for Windows operating systems. If you make any changes to the /boot/grub/grub.conf file, you do not need to load those changes. GRUB automatically picks up those changes when you reboot your computer. If you are accustomed to using the LILO boot loader, this may confuse you at first, as LILO requires you to rerun the lilo command for the changes to take effect. Adding a New GRUB Boot Image You may have different boot images for kernels that include different features. Here is the procedure for modifying the grub.conf file: 1. Copy the new image from the directory in which it was created (such as /usr/src/kernels/2.6.13-1.1526_FC4-i386/arch/i386/boot/) to the /boot directory. Name the file something that reflects its contents, such as bz-13-1.1526_FC4-i386. For example: # cd /usr/src/kernels/13-1.1526_FC4-i386/arch/i386/boot/ # cp bzImage /boot/bz-13-1.1526_FC4-i386 2. Add several lines to the /boot/grub/grub.conf file so that the image can be started at boot time if it is selected. For example: title Fedora Linux (IPV6 build) root (hd0,4) kernel /bz-13-1.1526_FC4-i386 ro root=/dev/hda6 initrd /initrd-2.6.5.img 3. Reboot your computer. When the GRUB boot screen appears, move your cursor to the title representing the new kernel and press Enter. The advantage to this approach, as opposed to copying the new boot image over the old one, is that if the kernel fails to boot, you can always go back and restart the old kernel. When you feel confident that the new kernel is working properly, you can use it to replace the old kernel or perhaps just make the new kernel the default boot definition. Booting Your Computer with LILO LILO stands for LInux LOader. Like other boot loaders, LILO is a program that can stand outside the operating systems installed on the computer so you can choose which system to boot. It also lets you give special options that modify how the operating system is booted. On Slackware and other Linux systems, LILO is used instead of GRUB as the default boot loader. Note
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Chapter 7 . Installing Linux 265 # kernel /vmlinuz-version ro root=/dev/hda6 # initrd /initrd-version.img #boot=/dev/hda default=0 timeout=10 splashimage=(hd0,4)/grub/splash.xpm.gz title Fedora Linux (2.6.13-1.1526_FC4) root (hd0,4) kernel /vmlinuz-2.6.13-1.1526_FC4 ro root=LABEL=/ initrd /initrd-2.6.13-1.1526_FC4.img title Windows XP rootnoverify (hd0,0) chainloader +1 The default=0 line indicates that the first partition in this list (in this case Fedora Linux) will be the one that is booted by default. The line timeout=10 causes GRUB to pause for 10 seconds before booting the default partition. (That s how much time you have to press e if you want to edit the boot line, or to press arrow keys to select a different operating system to boot.) The splashimage line looks in the fifth partition on the first disk (hd0,4) for the boot partition (in this case /dev/hda5, which is the /boot partition). GRUB loads splash.xpm.gz as the image on the splash screen (/boot/grub/splash.xpm.gz). The splash screen appears as the background of the boot screen. GRUB indicates disk partitions using the following notation: (hd0,0). The first number represents the disk, and the second is the partition on that disk. So, (hd0,1) is the second partition (1) on the first disk (0). The two bootable partitions in this example are Fedora and Windows XP. The title lines for each of those partitions are followed by the name that appears on the boot screen to represent each partition. For the Fedora Linux system, the root line indicates the location of the boot partition as the second partition on the first disk. So, to find the bootable kernel (vmlinuz-2.6.13-1.1526_FC4) and the initrd initial RAM disk boot image that is loaded (initrd-2.6.13-1.1526_FC4.img), GRUB looks in the root of hd0,4 (which is represented by /dev/hda5 and is eventually mounted as /boot). Other options on the kernel line set the partition as read-only initially (ro) and set the root file system to /dev/hda6. For the Windows XP partition, the rootnoverify line indicates that GRUB should not try to mount the partition. In this case, Windows XP is on the first partition of the first hard disk (hd0,0) or /dev/hda1. Instead of mounting the partition and passing options to the new operating system, the chainloader +1 indicates to hand control the booting of the operating system to another boot loader. The +1 indicates that the first sector of the partition is used as the boot loader. Note
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264 Part III . Choosing and Installing a Linux Distribution system on a partition with the label LABEL=/. The third line (starting with initrd) identifies the location of the initial RAM disk, which contains the minimum files and directories needed during the boot process. If you are going to change any of the lines related to the boot process, you would probably change only the second line to add or remove boot options. Here is how you do that: 1. Position the cursor on the kernel line and type e. 2. Either add or remove options after the name of the boot image. You can use a minimal set of bash shell command-line editing features to edit the line. You can even use command completion (type part of a filename and press Tab to complete it). Here are a few options you may want to add or delete: Boot to a shell If you forgot your root password or if your boot process hangs, you can boot directly to a shell by adding init=/bin/sh to the boot line. (The file system is mounted read-only, so you can copy files out. You need to remount the file system with read/write permission to be able to change files.) Select a run level If you want to boot to a particular run level, you can add the word linux, followed by the number of the run level you want. For example, to have Fedora Linux boot to run level 3 (multiuser plus networking mode), add linux 3 to the end of the boot line. You can also boot to single-user mode (1), multi-user mode (2), or X GUI mode (5). Level 3 is a good choice if your GUI is temporarily broken. 3. Press Enter to return to the editing screen. 4. Type b to boot the computer with the new options. The next time you boot your computer, the new options will not be saved. To add options so they are saved permanently, see the next section. Permanently Changing Boot Options You can change the options that take effect each time you boot your computer by changing the GRUB configuration file. In Fedora and other Linux systems, GRUB configuration centers on the /boot/grub/grub.conf file. The /boot/grub/grub.conf file is created when you install Linux. Here s an example of that file for Fedora Core: # grub.conf generated by anaconda # # Note that you do not have to rerun grub after making # changes to this file # NOTICE: You have a /boot partition. This means that # all kernel and initrd paths are relative to /boot/, eg. # root (hd0,0)
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Chapter 7 . Installing Linux 263 default boot loader. With GRUB configured, when you boot your computer, the first thing you see after the BIOS loads is the GRUB boot screen (it says GRUB at the top and lists bootable partitions below it), do one of the following: . Default If you do nothing, the default operating system will boot automatically after a few seconds. . Select an operating system Use the up and down arrow keys to select any of the operating systems shown on the screen. Then press Enter to boot that operating system. . Edit the boot process If you want to change any of the options used during the boot process, use the arrow keys to select the operating system you want and type e to select it. Follow the next procedure to change your boot options temporarily. If you want to change your boot options so that they take effect every time you boot your computer, see the section on permanently changing boot options. Changing those options involves editing the /boot/grub/grub.conf file. Temporarily Changing Boot Options From the GRUB boot screen, you can select to change or add boot options for the current boot session. First, select the operating system you want (using the arrow keys) and type e (as described earlier). You will see a graphical screen that contains information like the following: GRUB version 0.94 (639K lower / 128768K upper memory) root (hd0,0) kernel /boot/vmlinuz-2.6.13-1.1526_FC4 ro root=LABEL=/ initrd /boot/initrd-2.6. 13-1.1526_FC4.img Use the.and.keys to select which entry is highlighted. Press b to boot, e to edit the selected command in the boot sequence, c for a command-line, o to open a new line after ( O for before) the selected line, d to remove the selected line, or escape to go back to the main menu. There are three lines in the example of the GRUB editing screen that identify the boot process for the operating system you chose. The first line (beginning with root) shows that the entry for the GRUB boot loader is on the first partition of the first hard disk (hd0,0). GRUB represents the hard disk as hd, regardless of whether it is a SCSI, IDE, or other type of disk. You just count the drive number and partition number, starting from zero (0). The second line of the example (beginning with kernel) identifies the boot image (/boot/vmlinuz-2.6. 13-1.1526_FC4) and several options. The options identify the partition as initially being loaded ro (read-only) and the location of the root file
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262 Part III . Choosing and Installing a Linux Distribution Although people who use Linux systems casually rarely see a need for lots of partitions, those who maintain and occasionally have to recover large systems are thankful when the system they need to fix has several partitions. Multiple partitions can localize deliberate damage (such as denial-of-service attacks), problems from errant users, and accidental file system corruption. Using LILO or GRUB Boot Loaders A boot loader lets you choose when and how to boot the bootable operating systems installed on your computer s hard disks. Most Linux systems give you the opportunity to use GRUB or LILO boot loaders. The following sections describe both GRUB and LILO boot loaders. Booting Your Computer with GRUB With multiple operating systems installed and several partitions set up, how does your computer know which operating system to start? To select and manage which partition is booted and how it is booted, you need a boot loader. The boot loader that is installed by default with Fedora is called the GRand Unified Boot loader (GRUB). GRUB is a GNU bootloader (www.gnu.org/software/grub) that replaced the LILO as the default boot loader in many Linux systems (including Fedora). GRUB offers the following features: . Support for multiple executable formats. . Support for multiboot operating systems (such as Fedora, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and other Linux systems). . Support for non-multiboot operating systems (such as Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows ME, Windows XP, and OS/2) via a chain-loading function. Chain-loading is the act of loading another boot loader (presumably one that is specific to the proprietary operating system) from GRUB to start the selected operating system. . Support for multiple file system types. . Support for automatic decompression of boot images. . Support for downloading boot images from a network. For more information on how GRUB works, type man grub or info grub. The info command contains more details about GRUB. Booting with GRUB When you install Linux, you are typically given the option to configure the information needed to boot your computer (with one or more operating systems) into the
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Chapter 7 . Installing Linux 261 . Protection from attacks Denial of Service attacks sometimes take actions that try to fill up your hard disk. If public areas, such as /var, are on separate partitions, a successful attack can fill up a partition without shutting down the whole computer. Because /var is the default location for Web and FTP servers, and expected to hold a lot of data, entire hard disks often are assigned to the /var file system alone. . Protection from corrupted file systems If you have only one file system (/), its corruption can cause the whole Linux system to be damaged. Corruption of a smaller partition can be easier to fix and often allows the computer to stay in service while the correction is made. Table 7-2 lists some directories that you may want to consider making into separate file system partitions. Table 7-2 Assigning Partitions to Particular Directories Directory Explanation /boot Sometimes the BIOS in older PCs can access only the first 1,024 cylinders of your hard disk. To make sure that the information in your /boot directory is accessible to the BIOS, create a separate disk partition (of about 100MB) for /boot and make sure that it exists below cylinder 1,024. The rest of your Linux system can exist outside of that 1,024-cylinder boundary if you like. Even with several boot images, there is rarely a reason for /boot to be larger than 100MB. (For newer hard disks, you can select the Linear Mode check box during installation. Then the boot partition can be anywhere on the disk.) /usr This directory structure contains most of the applications and utilities available to Fedora Linux users. Having /usr on a separate partition lets you mount that file system as read-only after the operating system has been installed. This prevents attackers from replacing or removing important system applications with their own versions that may cause security problems. A separate /usr partition is also useful if you have diskless workstations on your local network. Using NFS, you can share /usr over the network with those workstations. /var Your FTP (/var/ftp) and Web-server (/var/www) directories are, by default in many Linux systems, stored under /var. Having a separate /var partition can prevent an attack on those facilities from corrupting or filling up your entire hard disk. /home Because your user account directories are located in this directory, having a separate /home account can prevent a reckless user from filling up the entire hard disk. /tmp Protecting /tmp from the rest of the hard disk by placing it on a separate partition can ensure that applications that need to write to temporary files in /tmp are able to complete their processing, even if the rest of the disk fills up.
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260 Part III . Choosing and Installing a Linux Distribution . Display the partition table Throughout this process, feel free to type p to display (print on the screen) the partition table as it now stands. . Quit or save Before you write your changes, display the partition table again and make sure that it is what you want it to be. If you don t like a change you make to your partitions, press Q to exit without saving. Nothing changes on your partition table. If your changes are correct, write them to the partition table by pressing W. You are warned about how dangerous it is to change partitions, and you must confirm the change. An alternative to the menu-driven fdisk command is sfdisk, which is a commandline oriented partitioning tool. With sfdisk, you type the full command line to list or change partitions, instead of being taken through a set of prompts (as with fdisk). See the sfdisk man page for details. Linux experts often prefer sfdisk because it can be used in combination with other commands to take and output partitioning information. Tips for Creating Partitions Changing your disk partitions to handle multiple operating systems can be very tricky, in part because each operating system has its own ideas about how partitioning information should be handled, as well as different tools for doing it. Here are some tips to help you get it right: . If you are creating a dual-boot system, particularly for Windows ME or Windows XP, try to install the Windows operating system first. Otherwise, the Windows installation may make the Linux partitions inaccessible. Choosing a VFAT instead of NTFS file system for Windows will also make sharing files between your Windows and Linux systems easier and more reliable. . The fdisk man page recommends that you use partitioning tools that come with an operating system to create partitions for that operating system. For example, the DOS fdisk knows how to create partitions that DOS will like, and the Linux fdisk will happily make your Linux partitions. Once your hard disk is set up for dual boot, however, you should probably not go back to Windowsonly partitioning tools. Use Linux fdisk or a product made for multiboot systems (such as Partition Magic). . You can have up to 63 partitions on an IDE hard disk. A SCSI hard disk can have up to 15 partitions. You won t need nearly that many partitions. If you are using Linux as a desktop system, you probably don t need a lot of different partitions. There are, however, some very good reasons for having multiple partitions for Linux systems that are shared by a lot of users or are public Web servers or file servers. Multiple partitions within Fedora Linux, for example, offer the following advantages:
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Chapter 7 . Installing Linux 259 To use fdisk to change your partitions, you need to identify the hard disk you are partitioning. For example, the first IDE hard disk is identified as /dev/hda. So, to partition your first IDE hard drive, you can begin (as root user) by typing: # fdisk /dev/hda For different hard drive types or numbers, /dev/hda is replaced by the name of the device you want to work with. Table 7-1 shows some of your choices. Table 7-1 Disk Device Names Device Description /dev/hda For the first IDE hard disk; hdb, hdc, and so on for other IDE disks. /dev/sda For the first SCSI hard disk; sdb, sdc, and so on for other SCSI disks. /dev/rd/c0d0 For a RAID device. /dev/ida/c0d0 Also for a RAID device. After you have started fdisk, type m to see the options. Here is what you can do with fdisk: . Delete a partition Type d and a partition number, and then press Enter. For example, /dev/sda2 would be partition number 2. (The deletion won t take effect until you write the change you can back out up to that point.) . Create a partition If you have free space, you can add a new partition. Type n; l for a logical partition (5 or over) or p for a primary partition (1 4); and a partition number from the available range. Then choose the first cylinder number from those available. (The output from fdisk l shown earlier will show you cylinders being used under the Start and End columns.) Next, enter the cylinder number the partition will end with (or type the specific number of megabytes or kilobytes you want: for example, +50M or +1024K). You just created an ext3 Linux partition. Again, this change isn t permanent until you write the changes. . Change the partition type Press T to choose the type of file system. Enter the partition number of the partition number you want to change. Type the number representing the file system type you want to use in hexadecimal code. (Type L at this point to see a list of file system types and codes.) For a Linux file system, use the number 83; for a Linux swap partition, use 82; and for a windows FAT32 file system, use the letter b.
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